Title:
Stimulant Use and Cardiovascular Consequences
By
Arthur Westover, MD, MSCS 5/30/2014
I. Introduction
A. Stimulants are one of five categories
of drugs used to get a high
1. Stimulants—increase arousal
2. Depressants
a. ↓ brain activity/arousal (leading to
lethargy, sleepiness)
b. ↓ anxiety
c. Examples:
alcohol & diazepam (Valium)
3. Opioids
a. ↓ pain
b. ↓ gut motility and cough
c. Examples:
morphine, heroin, codeine
4. Hallucinogens
a. ↑ sensory perception
b. Some have stimulant-like properties (e.g.,
LSD)
c. Examples:
LSD, mescaline, ecstasy
5. Other drugs
a. Cannabis
b. Inhalants (e.g. gasoline, toluene)
B.
Stimulant misuse carries risks, especially in overdose:
1. Seizures
2. ↑ body temperature
3. Serious cardiovascular events
4. Death
C.
This lecture covers:
1.
Definition of stimulants and other drugs of misuse
2. Rates of stimulant use
3. Physiological effects of stimulants
4. Cardiovascular consequences of high-dose stimulants
5. Possible cardiovascular consequences of
moderate-dose stimulants
D.
Stimulant misuse unrecognized by many docs, but is a major problem
II. Description of stimulants
A.
Multiple types of stimulants used on the street
1. Cocaine (coke) & amphetamines (speed or
uppers)
a. Cocaine comes in several forms
1’. Powder (cocaine hydrochloride) taken
intranasally or intravenous (IV)
2’. Crystalline (crack, rock)
a’. More pure
b’. Lower melting point
c’.
Smoked
b.
Amphetamines also in multiple forms
1’. Crystalline (“crystal meth”) usually smoked
2’.
Powder taken intranasally or IV
3’.
Tablets/capsules taken orally
B. Stimulants are characterized by
causing:
1. Euphoria
2. ↓ need for sleep
3. ↓ appetite
4. ↑ focus/attention
5. ↑ pulse, blood pressure
(BP)
C.
Cocaine and amphetamines have risks
1. Overdose
a. Seizures
b. ↑ body temperature
c. ↑ BP
d. Heart arrhythmias
e. Can → death
2. Cardiovascular effects
a. Low dose can cause ↓ heart rate1
b. High dose can ↑ heart rate and BP
D.
Cocaine use is common
1. ~40 million Americans 12+yo have lifetime use
(2012)2
2. ~5 million Americans 12+yo reported past-year
use (2012)2
E.
Amphetamine use is common
1. ~12 million have lifetime use2
2. ~1 million reported past-year use2
F.
Rx Stimulant use increasing
1. 5 million insured users of stimulants in 2012
2. Stimulant use increased from 2008 to 20123
a. Use by children ↑ by 19%
b. Use by adults ↑ by 53%
c. Use by women 26-34 years old ↑ 85%
III. Amphetamines also prescribed to treat illness
A.
Clinical indications for use include:
1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD)
a. Definition: ↓attention and/or hyperactivity→
learning/behavior problems
b. Rates of ADHD
1’. Children
a’. ~5%
of ♂, ≤18 years of age4
b’. ~1.5% of ♀
c’. 11% of school age children diagnosed5: overdiagnosis?
2’. Adults
a’.
~5% of ♂, age 18-44 6
meet criteria (less diagnosed & treated)
b’. ~3%
of ♀, age 18-44
c. Stimulants are part of ADHD treatment including:
1’. Methylphenidate (Ritalin); adult dose 20mg 3x/day
2’. Amphetamine (Adderall); adult dose 15mg 2x/day
2. Narcolepsy
a. Definition:
sudden disabling daytime sleepiness (fast onset dream sleep)
b.
Rate: 1 in 2000 persons7
c.
Daytime naps and medications are first-line therapy including:
1’. Methylphenidate (Ritalin); dose is usually
20mg 2x/day
2’. Amphetamine (Adderall); dose is usually 20mg 2x/day
3. Obesity
a. >1/3rd US adults are obese (definition: Body Mass Index ≥ 30)8
b. Stimulants → ↓ appetite
c. Stimulants used in Rx weight loss include:
1’.
Dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine)
2’.
Methamphetamine (Desoxyn)
3’.
Benzphetamine (Didrex)
d. Use in weight loss relatively rare due to:
1’. Other pharmacological options that are safer
(e.g.,orlistat [Xenical])
2’. ↓ weight only seen first ~ 3 weeks and
returns1
B.
Off-label use
1. Evidence is indirect and anecdotal; off-label
use is likely frequent9
2. Example uses:
a. Depressive symptoms
b. Dementia
c. Stroke recovery
d. “Neuroenhancement” (efforts to ↑
cognition)
3. Use has risks but no clear evidence of
benefit
4. Some risks noted
above; more are given next section
IV. Physiological effects of stimulants
A.
Distinguishing "endogenous" vs. "exogenous"
stimulants
1. Endogenous stimulants
a. Body produces naturally
b. Examples:
epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
2. Exogenous stimulants
a. Referring to chemicals that are ingested
b. Examples include cocaine and amphetamine
B.
Endogenous stimulants
1. "Catecholamines" (comes from “catechol”
= plant product with stimulant
properties)
a. Exist in nerve tissue throughout the body
b. Brain
c. Adrenal glands
2. Exist as neurotransmitters
a. Epinephrine (called "adrenaline" in
some countries)
b. Norepinephrine
c. Dopamine
C.
Physiological effects
1. Endogenous:
"fight or flight"
2. Exogenous:
"hijack" the endogenous system
D.
Fight or flight stress response
1. ↑ heart rate
2. ↑ release of glucose (energy)
3. ↑ blood flow to skeletal muscles
4. ↓ blood flow to many other parts of
body
5. ↓ digestion; dilation of the pupil
6. ↓ salivation → dry mouth
E.
How exogenous stimulants hijack the endogenous pathway
1. Mechanism
a. Cause direct release of catecholamines
b. ↓ reputake of catecholamines from space
between neurons
2. Summary:
neuron is stuck in the stimulated position
F.
Stimulant intoxication →
1. CNS effects
a. Euphoria
b. ↓fatigue and ↑wakefulness
c. ↑ sex drive and prolonged orgasm
d. ↓appetite
e. ↑ energy
f. ↓distractibility (or ↑ attention
focus)
2. Peripheral effects
a. Hand tremor
b. Restlessness
c. ↑ muscle tension
d. ↑ body temperature
V. Cardiovascular dangers associated with
high-dose stimulants (i.e illicit/non-medical use)
A.
Distinguishing between high and low dose stimulants
1. High dose refers to illicit and non-medical
use
2. Low dose refers to medical use at prescribed
doses
B.
High dose cocaine & amphetamines ↑ risk cardiovascular
problems including:
1. Stroke (both ischemic and hemorrhagic)
2. Heart attack (i.e. myocardial infarction or
MI)
3. Sudden cardiac death (sudden pulseless
condition leading to death)
4. Aortic dissection (tearing of the aorta)
C.
Mechanisms
1. Vasospasm
(constriction) of arteries in brain and heart
2. Increased BP → bleeding
from blood vessels
3. Increased demand for oxygen
4. Decreased perfusion (blood flow) to the heart
muscle
5. Clot (thrombus) formation through activation
of platelets
6. Arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat)
7. Inflammation of
arteries to brain and heart (vasculitis)
D.
Serious cardiovascular events from stimulants not uncommon
1. A study reported 25% non-fatal MI in adults related
to cocaine10
2. 3% sudden death may relate to cocaine 11
3. 2% bleeding-related strokes in adults related
to amphetamines12
4. 3% aortic dissections in adults relate to
cocaine and amphetamines13
E.
Increased risk of serious cardiovascular events
1. 7x risk of non-fatal MI with cocaine use10
2. 3x risk of hemorrhagic stroke with
amphetamine use12
3. 3x risk of aortic dissection with amphetamine
use13
VI. Possible cardiovascular dangers with low-dose
prescribed stimulants
A.
Mechanism
1. Blood pressure
a. Blood pressure ↑s with
↑ dose → ↑ mortality
b.
Stimulant medications ↑ BP by 2-4 mmHg14,15
2. Heart rate
a. ↑ heart rate predicts ↑mortality
16
b.
Stimulants ↑ heart rate by
6 beats per minute14
3. QT Prolongation17
a. QT interval: time heart takes to make next beat
b. ↑ in
QT interval ↑ risk arrhythmias
c. ↑
risk sudden death as heart loses coordination of beats
4. Large epidemiological studies have linked
increases to BP to CV events
a. Linear relationship: ↑ BP → increased stroke and
myocardial infarction18
b. May not impact a specific individual, but
important on population scale
B.
Studies of the association between Rx stimulants and CV events
1. Efficacy RCTs have been too small to observe
a relationship
2. Observational studies have been conducted in
children & adults
C.
Observational studies in children/adolescents
1. 20% increased
hazard for CV ER visit19
2. + ↑ risk sudden death20, 21
3. No increased risk of heart attack, stroke,
sudden death20
4. Overall no ↑ risk serious child CV
events21,22
D.
Observational studies in adults
1. 3x risk of transient ischemic attack
(mini-stroke), but not stroke23
2. ~2x ↑ risk of sudden death/ventricular
arrhythmia24
3. Overall no ↑ risk of serious adult CV
events25
a. Best & largest study of adults published
b. Results subject to “healthy user bias”
1'. Stimulant users are generally healthier
2'. Stimulant users are more educated
c. Median use only 4 months
E.
What questions remain?
1. Have we accounted for bias in the
studies?
a. Healthy user bias
b. Unmeasured variables (example: lifestyle factors)
2. Were high risk populations underrepresented?
a. Elderly
b. Adults with multiple cardiovascular risk
factors
F.
Public health considerations of serious cardiovascular events (stroke,
heart attack, death)
1. Baseline rate of serious cardiovascular
events
a.
Children: 3 events per 100,000
person-years21
b. Adults: >70x higher than children (220 events per 100,000 person-years)25
2. Any increased risk due to Rx stimulants would
have more impact on adults
a. Children:
possible 2x risk = 6 per 100,000 person-years21
b.
Adults: possible 2x risk = 440
per 100,000 person-years25
G.
Government/organization-based
guidelines for Rx stimulants26
1. US warned re: stimulant dangers starting in
2006
2.
3. Amer. Heart Assn: Rx stimulants < age
18 recommended
a. Careful health history
b. Physical
exam
4. Amer Acad Peds: EKG reasonable but not
mandatory before Rx stimulants
VII. Conclusions
A.
Stimulants commonly misused
B.
Clinical use of prescribed stimulants is rapidly increasing
C.
Dangers associated with misuse of stimulants
D.
Cardiovascular safety has been a concern with prescribed use
1. Minimal concern with children
2. No definite risk established in adults, but
safety signal present
E.
Caution when prescribing to patients at high risk for CV events
Reference
List
1. Schuckit
M. Drug and Alcohol Abuse: A Clinical
Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment. 6th ed. Springer; 2005.
2. Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug
Use and Health: Summary of National Findings and Detailed Tables. Substance Use
and Mental Health Services Administration. 10-2-2013. Available at: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2012SummNatFindDetTables/Index.aspx.
Accessed April 8, 2011.
3. Turning Attention to ADHD: U.S. Medication
Trends for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. The Express Scripts Lab.
2014. Available at: http://lab.express-scripts.com/insights/industry-updates/report-turning-attention-to-adhd.
Accessed April 8, 2011.
4. Zuvekas
SH, Vitiello B. Stimulant medication use in children: a 12-year perspective. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169:160-166.
5. 2011-2012 National Survey of Children's
Health. CDC. 2013. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/slaits/nsch.htm.
Accessed April 8, 2011.
6. Kessler
RC, Adler L, Barkley R et al. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in
the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:716-723.
7. Thorpy
M. Therapeutic advances in narcolepsy. Sleep
Med. 2007;8:427-440.
8. Ogden,
CL, Carroll, MD, Kit, BK, and Flegal, KM. Prevalence
of Obesity in the United States, 2009–2010. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. 2012. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db82.pdf.
Accessed April 8, 2011.
9. Radley
DC, Finkelstein SN, Stafford RS. Off-label Prescribing Among Office-Based
Physicians. Archives of Internal
Medicine. 2006;166:1021-1026.
10. Qureshi
AI, Suri MF, Guterman LR, Hopkins LN. Cocaine use and the likelihood of
nonfatal myocardial infarction and stroke: data from the Third National Health
and Nutrition Examination Survey. Circulation.
2001;103:502-506.
11. Lucena
J, Blanco M, Jurado C et al. Cocaine-related sudden death: a prospective
investigation in south-west Spain. European
Heart Journal. 2010;31:318-329.
12. Westover
AN, McBride S, Haley RW. Stroke in young adults who abuse amphetamines or
cocaine: A population-based study of hospitalized patients. Archives of General Psychiatry.
2007;64:495-502.
13. Westover
AN, Nakonezny PA. Aortic dissection in young adults who abuse amphetamines. American Heart Journal.
2010;160:315-321.
14. Mick
E, McManus DD, Goldberg RJ. Meta-analysis of increased heart rate and blood
pressure associated with CNS stimulant treatment of ADHD in adults. European Neuropsychopharmacology.
2013;23:534-541.
15. Wilens
TE, Hammerness PG, Biederman J et al. Blood pressure changes associated with
medication treatment of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:253-259.
16. Cooney
MT, Vartiainen E, Laatikainen T, Juolevi A, Dudina A, Graham IM. Elevated
resting heart rate is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease in
healthy men and women. Am Heart J.
2010;159:612-619.
17. Reimherr
FW, Williams ED, Strong RE, Mestas R, Soni P, Marchant BK. A double-blind,
placebo-controlled, crossover study of osmotic release oral system
methylphenidate in adults with ADHD with assessment of oppositional and
emotional dimensions of the disorder. J
Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:93-101.
18. Psaty
BM, Furberg CD, Kuller LH et al. Association between blood pressure level and
the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, and total mortality: the
cardiovascular health study. Arch Intern
Med. 2001;161:1183-1192.
19. Winterstein
AG, Gerhard T, Shuster J, Johnson M, Zito JM, Saidi A. Cardiac safety of
central nervous system stimulants in children and adolescents with
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics.
2007;120:e1494-e1501.
20. Schelleman
H, Bilker WB, Strom BL et al. Cardiovascular Events and Death in Children
Exposed and Unexposed to ADHD Agents. Pediatrics.
2011;127:1102-1110.
21. Cooper
WO, Habel LA, Sox CM et al. ADHD Drugs and Serious Cardiovascular Events in
Children and Young Adults.
22. Almut
GW, Tobias G, Paul K et al. Cardiovascular safety of central nervous system
stimulants in children and adolescents: population based cohort study. BMJ. 2012;345.
23. Holick
CN, Turnbull BR, Jones ME, Chaudhry S, Bangs ME, Seeger JD. Atomoxetine and
cerebrovascular outcomes in adults. J
Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009;29:453-460.
24. Schelleman
H, Bilker WB, Kimmel SE et al. Methylphenidate and risk of serious cardiovascular
events in adults. Am J Psychiatry.
2012;169:178-185.
25. Habel
LA, Cooper WO, Sox CM et al. ADHD medications and risk of serious
cardiovascular events in young and middle-aged adults. JAMA. 2011;306:2673-2683.
26. Westover A, Halm E. Do prescription stimulants
increase the risk of adverse cardiovascular events?: A systematic review. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders.
2012;12:41.